The full guide to how democracy in ancient Athens worked
Athenian democracy reached its peak of glory in the middle of the 5th century, and this heyday lasted about thirty years, a period that has gone down in history as the golden age of Pericles. But the state with its special institutions existed forty years before Pericles and was to survive until the reign of the Macedonians, two hundred years later. In other words, it lived for nearly three centuries, more than any other modern or ancient democracy. The great endurance at the time of Athenian democracy is attributed by scholars not only to the right institutions but also to their great adaptability and the ability of evolution. The institutions were born out of the needs of life and were therefore easily adaptable to changing conditions. They were not creations of just a wise head, even if it belonged to Solon.
The adaptability of institutions is shown in the development of the institution of the king. In the democracy, in the time of Pericles, the king was drawn by lot every year, representing a distant echo of the Mycenaean kings, of which Kodros was the last. The institution was not abolished. It evolved into a part of democracy with religious-ritual duties.
Kleisthenes may be regarded as the founder of the Athenian Republic, but he relied on the legislation of Solon, who is undoubtedly the father of democracy. When Solon drafted his laws, he did not have any illusions about their effectiveness. "The law," he said, "is like a spider's web: the small and weak cling to it, while the strong tear it asunder". This is another example of the rectitude and wisdom which distinguished the ancient Greek mind.
The democracy established by Kleisthenes was a plutocratic and oligarchic system, but it had orderly and evolving institutions and was transformed into a true "for the people" regime with the reforms of Efvoulos, Efialtes, and Pericles.
The state of ancient Athens, as it formed after the radical reforms of Kleisthenes, Efialtes, and Pericles, was a direct democracy. The Municipality, i.e., the popular assembly of all Athenian citizens 20 years of age and older, had collected all the powers after 462 B.C. and exercised them through the various bodies it appointed or controlled. It had not only legislative but also executive powers and in some cases (ultimate treason, blasphemy, etc.) was transformed into a supreme court.
In the municipal assembly, which met 40 times a year, any citizen could speak and no matter how much he spoke or what he said, no one could interrupt or stop him.
They elected 500 members of Parliament. The deputies were drawn from 1000 representatives of Attica's 170 congregations, who were designated as pre-elected and were elected by secret ballot for a one-year term. The 500 who were not drawn as deputies remained alternate deputies and were designated as successors.
Of the 500 deputies, who received a small wage, the rectorate of 50 members was drawn by lot, which was the government of Athenian Republic for 35 days. The rectors remained in the rectorate as long as they performed their duties, at the expense of the state. One of them was appointed secretary of parliament for a day or two at most and had the role of a Prime Minister.
Parliament was the deliberative body of the Municipality. Every law, in order to be passed by the latter, had to be prepared and discussed by Parliament, which then enacted it.
In summary, we see that the source and bearer of all powers was the people's assembly, the Municipality. All offices were generally open and accessible to all citizens. Many offices were decided by lot, meaning that someone was potentially elected to many offices from the moment they were born an Athenian citizen, just waiting to see when they would be drawn into one. It also means that all citizens, rich or poor, would one day be drawn or elected into office.
The judicial authorities were two great courts, the Supreme Court, the old supreme court, which had lost many of its powers in the years of democracy, and the Iliaia, the people's court, which consisted of 6000 members chosen by lot from all the citizens for a year. The Iliaia was divided into ten divisions of 600 judges each and dealt with all criminal and civil cases. However, there were also smaller or special courts.
The administrative authorities of the Athenian Republic were also appointed by lot or by vote of the Municipality. They consisted of:
The nine lords, who after 462 B.C. had lost all essential power and exercised only ritual functions. The nine lords were drawn by lot from among the rich and were: the eponymous lord, the lord-king, the warlord, and the six lawgivers. After their term of office, which was one year, they became lifelong members of the Supreme Court.
The ten constables, whose duty it was to keep order, had under their command armed detachments of Scythians or Thracian slaves.
The ten repairers of the sanctuaries, who were responsible for the upkeep of the temples, the five road builders, the five ship repairers, the fountain master, who was responsible for the water supply of the city, and the naval architects, who were responsible for the construction and maintenance of the warships.
The economic principles of Athenian democracy were also chosen by lot for one year and were: the ten treasurers, the ten treasurers of Athena, the ten treasurers of the gods, the treasurer of the poor, the ten grain keepers, the ten sellers, and the ten receivers.
Finally, the military authorities consisted of the ten generals, elected for one year without the right of re-election (abolished after 440 BC), the ten brigadiers, the ten tribal chiefs, the two horsemen and the treasurer of soldiers.
Generals could be elected from all ranks. In rare cases of great national danger a general was given great, almost dictatorial powers, always by the decision of the Municipality and for a very short time and then he was called general-emperor.
The most important institutional features of democracy, however, were its functions: The short duration of power (a year at most, although the Rectors ruled for only a few weeks and the secretary of Parliament, i.e. the Prime Minister, for only a day or two!). The constant alternation of persons in power. The accessibility of power to all citizens, whatever their origin or property. The election of the Lords, by secret ballot or lottery. Written legislation, with laws drafted by the Parliament and voted on by the People's Assembly. The independence and the people basis of the judiciary.
But there were other institutions that gave Athenian democracy the characteristics of a constitutional and welfare state.
One of these was the institution of trials: No citizen could run for office unless he or she had first passed six trials.
What were the conditions for becoming a member of parliament in ancient Athens?
Specifically, he had to prove:
- he was a true Athenian citizen.
- he served in the army and participated in campaigns.
- he has paid taxes regularly.
- he was honest and had never been convicted of a dishonorable offense.
- he was pious.
- his conduct towards his parents was irreproachable.
These tests were extensive and exhaustive and the first three were administered by the Parliament and the other three by the courts. With these trials, it is clear that many vices were excluded from the possibility of being elected in the first place.
Another important institution was the functions, which were a kind of honorary tax. The municipality commissioned a wealthy citizen to equip a warship, finance the performance of a tragedy (hence the term sponsor), and generally to do some charitable work without hope of gain except the mention of his name in an honorary column.
The person proposed had the right to decline, but on the condition that he specify another person he thought richer, who in turn could ask for an exchange of their fortunes if he claimed he was not so rich. This exchange was called Antidosis.
Finally, the third institution was ostracism, by which the Republic could remove from the political scene anyone who, because of his extreme popularity or ability, was considered by the general public to be dangerous to the institutions and the state. Ostracism was introduced in 508 by Kleisthenes to prevent the recurrence of tyranny. It was decided after a public complaint by the Municipality, which met extraordinarily in the Agora. It was followed by a vote of all the citizens, who wrote the name of the candidate for ostracism on shards of clay(shells). If the written shells constituted more than half of the voters, the condemned man had to leave Attica within three days and remain in exile for ten years, after which he would return, with no further consequences for his political rights, property or family.
Was the city government of Athens, then, a true democracy?
Many deny it and make strong arguments. But what is democracy? Pericles answers this question in the "Epitaph", "When not few govern but the many, that is what we call democracy". The question is, what do we mean by "many"?
The opposite of democracy is an oligarchy, where few rule. The idea that it is not right for the state to be ruled by the many, the mob, the ignorant people, but by the chosen few, the aristocracy, is ancient and was expressed more clearly by Plato. The question is, who are these aristocratic-excellent people, whence do they derive the right to govern, and on the basis of what logic do they deny this right to the common people?
All kinds of oligarchs accept as the criterion for classification as one of the best either origin or wealth or education and claim that the right of the excellent ones to rule comes either by the gods, or by historical or social necessity, or by other equally arbitrary sources. In reality, the only source of power for the elite since ancient times has been overt or covert violence.
In various forms of democracy, however, those in power are elected by others. The way in which they are elected and the number of those who have the right to vote to vary, of course, according to the form of democracy, but the greater the number of the elected, the greater the choice among many candidates, and the simpler the process, the broader the democracy.
Of course, the Athenian Republic was not an ideal state. It had many serious weaknesses and disadvantages such as Aristotle, Plato, or Xenophon point out. The former was prejudiced against it and the other two were its enemies. They were disturbed by the omnipotence of the Municipality, the changeable moods and decisions of the people, and by the modernistic spirit which prevailed everywhere.
There were also some other disadvantages of the Athenian Republic, which ultimately led to their defeat.
The Athenian Republic was pro-war and expansionist. He could not do otherwise. In ancient times, the main means of production was the land. The State, relying on the free small farmers, had to make sure that they were all allotted enough land. When the land in Attica became insufficient, the Republic waged wars, annexed new territories, and installed Athenian heirs there. But the constant wars, which it fought not with mercenaries but with its own army of Athenian citizens, undermined its own social base, for they led the citizens to economic ruin.
Finally, the Athenian Republic was too localist. Although it had the possibility of uniting almost all of Greece in one political unity, it did not have the insight, breadth of mind, and organizational ability to do so. Rome later managed to display such abilities and virtues.
